#11 Links between dance and music at the time of the loss of Polish statehood between 1795 and 1918
UDC: 793.3(438)"1875/1918"
78(438)"1875/1918"
COBISS.SR-ID 139171593 CIP - 3
Received: Nov 12, 2023
Reviewed: Nov 28, 2023
Accepted: Dec 08, 2023
#11 Links between dance and music at the time of the loss of Polish statehood between 1795 and 1918
Citation: Carlos-Machej, Klaudia. 2024. "Links between dance and music at the time of the loss of Polish statehood between 1795 and 1918." Accelerando: Belgrade Journal of Music and Dance 9:11
Abstract
National culture is a treasury of artistic works, knowledge, norms and principles. That is the knowledge considered obligatory for members of the national collective, and passed on to subsequent generations. National culture is original, unique and inimitable - it sets a nation apart and distinguishes it from other nations. In addition, it also synthesizes a multiplicity of traditional regional cultures, integrating various elements: from national consciousness to the unification of language, attitudes and customs. This phenomenon also applies to dance, which would not become an element of national culture without the participation of artists-creators, artists-performers and audiences. The collapse of the Polish state in 1795 was an acute period in Polish history. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that it was a period extremely rich in artistic achievements in literature, music, visual arts, drama and dance. The goal of this work is to show that the native dance, in this difficult time of partition, emanated Polishness, exhibited freedom and unity, manifested the national character, and together with music, literature, and the visual arts, became a carrier of native, historical and mental qualities.
polish dances, polish music, polonaise, krakowiak, mazur, oberek, polish ballet, polish national opera, karol kurpiński, fryderyk chopin, stanisław moniuszko, roman turczynowicz
Introduction
A particular rise in the importance of dance, and more specifically national dance, occurred in the difficult circumstances of the collapse of Polish statehood. Previously, it had performed functions of a ritual and entertainment character. During the partitions, dance became an expression of the collective identity of the nation. This fact may come as a surprise, since the basic civic and patriotic duty was to fight for Poland's independence, and we could not, after all, "dance away" our independence.
However, the incessant evoking of memories of the glory years of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ( Res Publica Utriusque Nationis. A state composed of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania formed in 1569 under the Union of Lublin with a common monarch, coat of arms, parliament, currency, foreign and defense policy - separate treasury, offices, army and judiciary were retained. It ceased to exist as a result of the Partition Treaties in 1795) shaped many means used for this purpose - from armed struggle in national uprisings to the battle of pen, brush, dance and gesture. The native dance in this difficult time of partition emanated Polishness, exhibited freedom and unity, and manifested the national character. Together with music, literature and the visual arts, it played a special role, as the "spiritual leader of the nation", and became a carrier of native, historical and mental qualities.
The History of Development of Dance Art in Poland
The stage history of Polish dances began in the second half of the 18th century. Ballets, dramatic performances and operas were presented at the royal court and in provincial theaters, organized at the magnate courts. The first ballet troupe was the troupe of His Majesty's Dancers, patronized by King Stanislaus Augustus (Stanisław August Poniatowski - the last king of Poland, patron of science and the arts, co-author of the 3rd May Constitution, 1732-1798). For the first time, the ballet troupe showed folk motifs in the ballet Rybaki, choreographed by Daniel Curz and featuring customs from the Kraków area. Subsequent ballets were Krakowiacy i Kozacy and Wanda Królowa Polska, both performed in 1788. Wojciech Bogusławski (1732-1798), Polish actor, opera singer, director, writer, playwright, promoter of Enlightenment ideology, director of the National Theatre in Warsaw and founder of the theater in Kalisz, theater theoretician and historian - the father of Polish theater - fascinated precisely by Krakow customs and concerned about the lack of national motifs in productions, initiated the creation of the vaudeville Cud mniemany Krakowiacy i Górale with these words:
The idea came to me to stage these merry and rubbishy Krakowiaks, who, singing, cultivate the land, singing, beat themselves up for it. (Bogusławski 1965, 76 - 77)
At the end of the performance, Krakowiak and Highland dances from the Podhale region were presented.
Picture 1. Jan Piotr Norblin "Polonez." Source: author's archive.
Karol Kurpiński
A great contribution to the development of Polish musical and dance culture was made by Karol Kurpiński (1785-1857), the Polish composer, representative of late Classicism, pedagogue, and renowned conductor. Among other things, he conducted the world premiere of Fryderyk Chopin's Piano Concerto in F minor on 17 March 1830, with the composer as soloist. Krupski composed polonaises (see Picture 1), lively krakowiaks, highlander dances and obertas. A breakthrough came in 1823 with the premiere of Poland's first national ballet, Wesele krakowskie w Ojcowie [Kraków wedding in Ojcow], to music by this composer, choreographed by Julia Mierzyńska (supported by Maurice Pion and Louis Thierry). The ballet combined elements of Polish wedding customs with elements of classical dance, and the whole was maintained in the style of a romantic vaudeville, showing the characteristic rhythmic and movement features of Polish dances - the krakowiak, mazur, oberek. It was Karol Kurpiński who gave later composers an example of creating music based on folk motifs.
Maria Szymanowska
In the spirit of Romanticism, compositions were created by, among others, Maria Szymanowska (1789-1831), who became known as the composer of a hundred items, including dance miniatures - mazurkas and polonaises. Polonaises were composed by Feliks Janiewicz, Ignacy Feliks Dobrzyński and Karol Lipiński.
Frederic Chopin
Picture 2. Frederic Chopin. Louis-Auguste Bisson - Ernst Burger: Frédéric Chopin. München 1990, S. 323. Source: wiki
The greatest Polish composer of this era was Fryderyk Chopin (1810-1849), who recognized the spirit of the nation in Polish dances, and was "the first to use the national dances of his country: the polonaise, mazurka, krakowiak - to pour his soul into them" (Einstein, 1965, 88-89). He was the first in his genius to build an individual, unique style based on folk patterns.
This is confirmed in his correspondence to Tytus Woyciechowski:
Only now do I see that I have spouted too many andrones to you - it is evident that yesterday's imagination is still at work, that I have not slept, and also forgive my fatigue, since I was dancing a mazur. (Chopin 2010, 24)
Chopin (see Picture 2) knew Polish dances, as he had experienced them personally. He danced with great commitment and devotion, and thus carried within him idiomatic gestures and rhythms, that were later reflected in his compositions.
Stanisław Moniuszko and Roman Turczynowicz
Elements of Polish folklore and quotations of folk melodies, as well as stylised Polish dances, are included in Stanislaw Moniuszko's works in the opera and ballet repertoire – Na kwaterunku. Stanisław Moniuszko (1819-1872) was Polish composer, conductor, pedagogue, organist (see Picture 3 (left)); author of over 268 songs, many operas, operettas, ballets and church music. His undeniable success was the premiere of the opera Halka in 1858, which was received enthusiastically by the audience.
The Mazurka and the Polonaise, as well as Highlander dances presented for the first time survived on this stage in the arrangement of Roman Turczynowicz (see Picture 3 (right)), the most outstanding Polish choreographer of the 19th century. Moniuszko became an equal partner for the choreographer, as he composed music that was thoroughly Polish, national, appealing to the imagination and evoking emotions. The choreography also bore these qualities.
Picture 3. Stanisław Moniuszko [on the left] (Tytus Maleszewski National Museum in Warsaw, 1865, public domain), and Roman Turczynowicz [on the right] (Maksymilian Fajans, 1853, public domain)
Stanisław Moniuszko's next opera, Straszny dwór [The Haunted Manor], premiered at the Grand Theatre on 28 September 1865. Great enthusiasm was generated by the national theme, presenting Sarmatian customs and arias in a national character. There was no end to the ovations; the Warsaw audience's emotion turned into a manifestation of patriotic feelings. The opera was taken off the bill after the third performance. The artistic qualities not only of the music, but also of Roman Turczynowicz's choreography, were recognized. There was an extensive review in the press, but little attention was paid to the dances:
The new Mazurka arrangement by the ballet director, Mr. Turczynowicz, was universally welcomed, and the performers taking part in it were covered with thunderous applause. (Kurier Warszawski 29 IX 1865)
The Polonaise aria of Miecznik and the chimes in Stefan's aria are references to Old Polish tradition; they evoke sentiment and memories of the splendor.
Culture Development in the second half of the 19th century
In the second half of the 19th century, positivist ideas oriented towards "organic work" or "work at the grassroots" were present in the Polish lands under partition. The priority was to build a strong society, that would not be devoid of the romantic spirit of fighting for Polishness. It is also worth noting that Polish sociology, which became a separate scientific discipline in this period, tied its basic research issues to the problems of the Romantic theory of the nation. Bolesław Limanowski treated it as a community united by historical tradition and cultural values, as pointed out by Jagna Dankowska in her publication Idee filozoficzne postromantyzmu i Młodej Polski (Nowik 2008, 129-143). And this is justified, because, after all, a man, or a community, in a situation of danger, wants to protect and preserve what constitutes its culture, because:
reality, even in the case of revolts or violent revolutions, is never 'abolished' or 'negated in its entirety, to the end. (Mackiewicz 1995, 97)
Writing to comfort the heart was reflected not only in fiction, but also in music, as Irena Poniatowska points out describing the symphonic and chamber music of the Warsaw milieu in the years 1860-1914. The author points out that this took place in the context of the stylization of Polish melodies, the national programming of works, and the stylization of Polish dances (Poniatowska 1980, 233). Dances were composed en masse at this time, and the main compositional trend continued to be the dance miniature, which often drew on Chopin patterns.
But what models were used in the era of the second half of the 19th century? The answer is found in Jozef Reiss:
While the national style in the Chopinian view is summarized - generally speaking - to the creative transformation of folk patterns while retaining the full individuality of the composer, composers of the post-Chopin era were limited to the opposite process - the blending of their creative individuality into the patterns of folk music (...)" (Reiss 1958, 201)
Both utilitarian and stylized forms were composed. They were presented in concert halls, salons, played at balls, redoubts and social gatherings. Most were polonaises and mazurkas. Authors include: Ignacy Krzyżanowski (1826-1905), e.g. Mazurkas concertante op. 8 with perceptible virtuoso elements, Michał Jelski (1831-1904) - creator of violin miniatures and piano miniatures (e.g. Mazurka in A major and E flat major), Aleksander Zarzycki (1834-1895), e.g. the virtuoso Mazurka in G major, Op. 26, Ludwik Grossman (1835-1915), Henryk Dąbrowski (1836-1913), Adolf Gustaw Sonnenfeld (1837-1914). Władysław Żeleński (1837-1921) combined the traditions of classical music with elements of folklore in his instrumental music. He wrote over 100 songs, including the Suite of Polish Dances Op. 47 and the Polonaise concertante Op. 45. Józef Wieniawski (1838-1912), wrote polonaises for piano, as did Juliusz Zarębski (1854-1885), e.g. the Polonaise in F sharp major Op. 6 and mazurkas, Zygmunt Noskowski (1846-1909), among others, composed a suite of mazurkas for mixed choir accompanied by piano, Wędrowny grajek, Eugeniusz Pankiewicz (1857-1898), author of minor salon pieces and solo and choral songs, Hanryk Pachulski (1859-1921), author of piano miniatures, Roman Statkowski (1859-1926), composer of Mazurkas op. 2,8,24 Franciszek Brzeziński (1867-1944) composed e.g. the Polish Suite op. 4, Adam Karasiński (1868-1920), who, apart from waltzes, became known as the author of polonaises and mazurkas, Henryk Melcer-Szczawiński (1869-1928), Emil Młynarski (1870-1935) e.g. the Violin miniature Mazur. Feliks Nowowiejski (1877-1946) e.g. piano and organ pieces, Mazurka op. 1 No. 6 for solo harp, Ignacy Jan Paderewski (1860-1941), Mazurka in E minor op. 5 No. 2, 6 humoresques (Nowak 2016, 273 -274). It is worth noting the journalistic activity of the composer Zygmunt Noskowski, which began in 1870. He wrote on the subject of music, but also made comments on the performance character of the dances:
In the Mazur the tempo should be moderately fast, for this dance has a certain solemnity, in addition to its daintiness, and it is impossible to knock out the tributes in haste, as one then falls out of tact. In recent times, however, people have begun to dance the Mazur at such a pace that the swagger has irretrievably disappeared, and what remains is a kind of skipping and prancing, which raises only a smile of pity. (Noskowski 1902, 23)
In all probability, it can be said that in the compositional output of the second half of the 19th century, authors reached for dance textbooks, and the notations contained therein provided creative inspiration for themselves. After all, pieces were played not only in concert halls, salons, and on the occasion of balls. They certainly provided colorful accompaniment to dance lessons. Dancing skills could be honed not only in the numerous dance schools which sprang up, but also in textbooks which methodically guided the reader through the meanders of style and choreotechnics. Among the authors, mention should be made of Onufry Rochacki, author of Mazur jak należy tańczyć w szczególności dla osób kształconych w swoim choreograficznym zakładzie wydał... (Poznan 1874), Adolf Lipiński and his Siedemdziesiąt pięć figur czyli przewodnik mazur (Poznan 1878). Also noteworthy is Arkadiusz Kleczewski, active in Lviv, author of the textbook Tańce salonowe. Praktyczny podręcznik dla tańczących (Lviv 1879). The most prolific of the authors was Karol Mestenhauser, associated with the capital.
Among his items are: 100 figurines of the mazurka and the general and detailed rules of the mazurka as a textbook for his pupils, written by Karol Mestenhauser the dance teacher (Warsaw 1878), 100 figurines of the mazurka and the general and detailed rules with the addition of the oberek (Warsaw 1880), Karol Mestenhauser's School of Dance. Part Three. Mazur and its principles and 125 mazur figures, third edition, revised and considerably enlarged by Karol Mestenhauser teacher of dance (Warsaw 1887), Karol Mestenhauser's School of Dance in Three Parts. Part 2, Circular dances galop, polka, Polish mazurka with troteska, waltzes, oberek, figure dances: contrednas, lansier, imperial, polonaise, krakowiak, kotiljon (Warsaw 1888), Karol Mestenhauser's School: in 3 parts. Part 3, The mazur and its principles and 150 mazur figures. Fourth edition, completely reworked and enlarged by Karol Mestanhauser, teacher of dance (Warsaw 1884), Karol Mestenhauser's School: in 3 parts. Part 3, Mazur and its principles and 150 mazur figures. Fifth edition completed by Karol Mestanhauser the dance teacher (Warsaw 1901). The number of Mestenhauser's publications testifies to the great popularity of salon dances. The textbooks contain a historical sketch of the dances in question, a description of the individual steps and figures. Mestaenhauser was particularly fond of the mazurka, and his numerous instructions concerned dance posture, musicality, sense of rhythm and the 'dexterity' necessary in the mazurka. This is what he wrote in the introduction to the textbook:
One of the most difficult, but most beautiful dances, most characteristic of the life and dexterity of youth, is the Mazur. It is a purely national Polish dance, which enlivens almost all our salons, and the music itself, even for young people who do not know how to dance, thrills and encourages general movement. (Mestenhauser 1884, 5)
Mestenhauser described the figures of the mazurka for four, eight, twelve, sixteen and more couples. He also suggested arrangements for smaller social gatherings and even for two couples. The dance had its own etiquette, for the rule was that men, when inviting a lady to dance, wrote their name in her card. The figures, as in the polonaise, had a symbolic meaning. The leadership of one man gave the dance a certain subjective form, as the final shape of the dance depended on the ringleader. The figures were not predetermined and obligatorily arranged; ingenuity and improvisation were important. The ringleader composed the dance spontaneously, hence the course of the dance usually looked different each time. Among the 125 figures in Mestenhauser's works, one can find those whose name is connected with the spatial form of the dance, e.g. circle, chain, arcade. Among the 125 figures in Mestenhauser's works, one can find those whose name is connected with the spatial form of the dance, e.g. circular, chain, arcade. Among the figures connected with circumstances, the author distinguished, for example, the kuligowa or zaściankowa; among those derived from localities, for example, the Marymontska, Kaliszanka, Płock, Włocławska, Lwów, Kujawska or Galician. Fancy and imagination could be seen in such names of figures as, for example, honor to the deities, metamorphosis or mosaic.
The compositional output of the second half of the 19th century also included dances native to Małopolska. Krakowiaks were written by Zygmunt Noskowski, Stanisław Moniuszko, Ignacy Krzyżanowski, Władysław Żeleński, Kazimierz Hofman (1842-1911), Eugeniusz Pankiewicz, Seweryn Berson (1858-1017), Roman Statkowski, author of Alla Cracovienne in D major op. 7 for violin and piano, piano krakowiak from the collection Polonica op. 23, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, author of 6 humoresques op. 14 and Krakowiak fantastyczny B major. Obereks and kujawiaks were composed less frequently, e.g. the works of Zygmunt Noskowski, e.g. Polish Suite op. 28 for piano for 2 and 4 hands, parts II, IV, VI (ca. 1880), Roman Statkowski, e.g. piano obereks from the collection Polonica op. 22, or Henryk Melcer-Szczawiński, e.g. Allegro from the Sonata in G major for violin and piano.
In addition to dance miniatures for piano, violin and chamber music, there was also dance music composed for orchestras playing at balls, redoubts, garden theaters, public halls or spas. One of the composers, a representative of this trend, was Fabian Tymolski (1828-1885) from Lviv. Tymolski's rich compositional output was characterized by great inventiveness; he wrote polonaises, krakowiak and mazurkas. Leopold Lewandowski, on the other hand, without whom no Warsaw ball could do without, was a master of salon mazurkas, which were admired by Stanisław Moniuszko. His works also include obertas and kujawiaks.
In the second half of the 19th century, national dances also found their place in the thriving choral music. In the years 1885-1886 in Poznań, a 5-volume songbook Lutnia Polska: Zbiór pieśni i piosenek obyczajowych i okolicznościowych, miłosnych, aryi i dumek, piosenek wiejskich: mazurów, krakowiaków, kujawiaków, obertasów, piosenek dla rzemieślników, weselnych i różnej innej treści z melodyami.
The perception of national dance took place at different levels and in different circumstances. This phenomenon could not take place without the involvement of individuals and their personal experience - survival. Roman Ingarden, a Polish philosopher and phenomenologist with an extraordinarily rich and varied oeuvre interested in exploring ontological, axiological and aesthetic issues, emphasizes that:
(...) experience in its development takes place in many phases and contains a variety of moments that fulfil their specific functions as a whole. It begins with a specific initial emotion, evoked in the perceiving subject by some aesthetically active quality present in the work of art, and leads to the constitution of the aesthetic object, which is then grasped in an eye-catching and value-sensing way. (Ingarden 1966, 52)
The aesthetic experience can be focused on both obtaining mere satisfaction, and also aims at cognition of a particular kind. Then the necessary condition will be the peculiar correlation of the work of art, the experiencing subject and the aesthetic object. This is because the work of art is distinguished by aesthetically active qualities, the grasping of which by the experiencing subject leads to the constitution of an aesthetically valuable object (Ibid., 53). Naturally, the preceptor-receiver should have the kind of sensitivity that awakens his or her emotional response through, for example, emotion, delight or admiration. It also becomes a kind of instrument for revealing aesthetic values by means of discovering the artistic values of the work.
The evocation of national liberation themes during the Partitions influenced the maintenance of national consciousness. This was comprehensively realized in the memory of customs, habits, music, songs and dances. Cultivating customs gave the lives of Poles at that time and their everyday life a deep meaning. A constant disposition of Polish society living under the partitions was to experience Polishness in all its dimensions.
Conclusion
Polish national dances have been and will remain the quintessence of the love of freedom. They are the heritage of national culture, the embodiment of three universal values - truth, goodness and beauty. National dances survived the epoch of the loss of statehood, liberated themselves from the dramatic history. In all phases of their evolution, in association with Polish music, they have become an exemplification of artistic means, a wealth of cultural tradition.
References
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